Android The Next PC Software Replacing Microsoft?

Android success as the most used operating system currently in phones has been a major boost for phone companies and Google. Being a free OS, that comes with multiple advantages such as free apps different versions with features; Microsoft’s African market share will soon be replaced by android PC version. Even though this might take some time, Android PC software has a 101% competitive edge of replacing Microsoft windows XP and Windows 7 as Africa’s most used PC software.

Microsoft still has a market share in Africa because of the extensible adoption of windows XP and windows 7. Technology advancement encourages most organizations to improve on their current versions, which has also been witnessed in Microsoft when they stopped further development and upgrade of windows XP Service pack one and two, and any other lower versions with a Windows 8 as new version. This has left people with an option to cling on their current versions of XPs and Windows 7 with a few upgrading to Windows 8.

From my interaction with people who have upgraded their versions to windows 8, they don’t like the interface. Its features and user interface is challenging to most people who were used to windows 7 and windows XP. With some users claiming that, if at all they could have touch screen PCs, then windows 8 could have been the best operating system. This being said, future advancement in windows will continue experiencing challenges in its adoptions. It seems they have a challenge in integrating new user interfaces and features while at the same time maintaining important features that encourages its usability. They need to do research on most important user interface features one being the startup menu common in windows XP and Windows 7 and was not included in the first version of windows 8.

The reason why Android will soon replace Microsoft’s windows OS as the most used operating system in PCs in the near future in the African market may be discussed in the following context.

Operating platform

For those who understand computing, developing a platform that interacts directly with the hardware as a resource makes the PC perform faster. The kernel is the lowest level of interaction software can interact with the hardware. Android as a platform has been developed and operates on this platform; this makes its interaction faster. Who else does not like an operating system that executes commands faster and achieves results?

Availability and Affordability (Free)

By availability I mean ease of access. By mere access to the internet android operating system can be downloaded and installed in a PC. It is categorized under the open source software policy. It’s readily available in the internet for download and customization. This is contrary to Microsoft products that are proprietary software that are bought not forgetting being expensive. With the fluctuation of the dollar in the international market, African market is judged by the value of the dollar. This has made Microsoft PC software more expensive and the ones available are counterfeited in the African market. This gives android a competitive edge over Microsoft in the near future. To be sincere Microsoft largely benefits from large private and government institutions that are in a position to procure Microsoft operating systems and products. One thing for sure, Africans love free things, and Google is busy manipulating this advantage with open source free products.

Multiple Apps and customization

Open source community offers multiple apps that are readily available for downloads on android platforms. Android and Google as large community of developers designing and developing apps that serve different user needs in the community. These apps have influenced the extent to which android PC users can customize the operation platform to achieve different tasks. Google has partnered with companies like yahoo to enhance user experience. This has majorly influenced android adoption which has enhanced communication as an essential factor in business operations via email.

Integration

            Android integrates easily with other applications. The compatibility of Android and apps developed on android platforms is appealing. Some of android apps can be installed on windows platform. Encouragingly, android development environment can also be installed on windows operating system.

Rapid advancement

            Android has a rapid development process with versions of android being developed. This is because of the large community of developers who keep on developing advanced operating systems and applications. Not even Microsoft has ever experienced such a rapid development. I guess they have adopted agile process of development with problems associated with applications such as bugs are rectified. This information is solicited from user feedback based on their experience.

Internet

The internet is what has revolutionized the technological world. Android has not been left behind either. As compared to other technologies such as modem use to access the internet, android platform has an accelerated internet speed. Even the use of 2G+ internet connections, android platform still has faster connection as compared to other platforms. The experienced has although been accelerated with the 3.75G+ internet connection technology. I don’t even mind using my phone as an access point to experience the fast internet connection. Windows operating system and the use of modems to access the internet is still slow. I this this is because of the operating platform to execute different commands.

Google with right strategic plan and execution strategy will soon overtake the African market with its free market policy. Android offers a better chance to do this.

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Internet Protocols (IPv4 and IPv6)

The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is based on the concept of accommodating networks (Internetworking); the process of routing plays a very significant role in the TCP/IP-based networks. From the inception of this routing protocol, various types of routing protocols have emerged over the years to deal with the various types of routing problem realm. These range from internal routing protocol (within an independent system) to external routing protocols (routing between different autonomous systems). Most of the emerging routing protocols are adequate for the currently implemented version of the Internet protocol (IP) IPv4. Although it does not mean that it’s sufficient enough not to have problems. The most recent development of the IP protocol IPv6 counters most challenges associated with IPv4 part of internet routing. That is it has expanded the address size, this has forced a revaluation of the current routing schemes that we are about to discuss.

Based on this introduction, it’s also good to understand some of the Internet Protocol that dictates the design on how these routing protocols are designed to be able to increase efficiency and security of the networks at the same time. What are some of their features that limit the design of the internet protocols and how their improvements are innovated.

IPv4 and IPv6

Intra-area routing and inter area routing

            The concept of intra-area routing and inter area routing has been implemented by most of the routing protocols we are about to discuss. To understand these concepts; Intra-area routing is the application of the routing concept within an autonomous system while inter area touting is the concept where by the routing integrates two independent autonomous systems.

Hence, this categorizes these existing routing to:

·         Interior routing protocols

·         Exterior routing protocols

Interior Routing Protocols

The interior routing protocols has the following protocols underneath it:

·         RIPv2

·         OSPF

·         IS-IS

·         EIGRP

RIPv2

History

It was first deployed in a computer network in 1967. Its earliest edition was the Gateway Information Protocol developed by Xeroc Parc. A later version followed named the Routing Information Protocol was also implemented that was part of the Xerox Network System. With the advancement in networks, another version was included which was compatible with the internet protocol was implemented by Berkeley Software Distribution a branch of the Unix Operating System. It was branded the name the routed daemon. Other vendors came up with their own implementations of the routing protocols. Later RFC 1058 brought all these implementations under one new standard.

RIPv2 is a vibrant routing protocol that can be implemented in both local and wide area networks. Because of this its categorized under the interior gateway protocol (IGP) which implements an algorithm known as Distance-vector routing algorithm in its configuration. Its development has resulted in the introduction of RIPv2 although bother versions are still in use today. Although some other advanced routing protocols out-phased it such as the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), OSI Protocol, IS-IS protocol.

Versions and description of RIP protocol:

RIP version 1

This was the original version that brought all other standards implemented by different vendors together. Defines as RFC 1058, it implemented the classful routing technique. In its configuration and use the periodic updates do not transmit subnet information. This lacked the support for the variable length subnet masks (VLSM). This feature gave it a lot of limitations when it comes to the implementation of the different sized subnets that are grouped in the same network class. In other words it only allowed all subnets in a network to be of the same size. There is also no feature that supports router access authorization. This makes RIPv1 susceptible to various attacks.

RIP version 2

Due to the shortcomings of RIPv1, RIPv2 was later developed. It had the capability to transmit subnet information, thus supporting the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). To be able to maintain similarity with the previous version some of the features like the hop count limitations were not changed. In addition to avoid the load on hosts that do not operate the routing process, RIPv2 multicasts whole of the routing table as well as the adjacent routers at the address 224.0.0.9. This is opposed to RIPv1 which only implemented broadcast. Despite this development unicasting was still left for unique applications. This version later was accompanied by the Md5 authentication feature; route tags were also incorporated later, this is a feature that allows routes to be separated from internal routes to external reallocated routes from EGP protocols.

RIPng (RIP next generation)

            This is an improvement from the previous version for the support of the IPv6, which is considered the next generation internet protocol. Some of the major differences from the previous version include the support for the IPv6 networking protocol, the implementation of the IPsec for authentication and not Md5, it does not allow the attachment of tags to routes as the previous version, it incorporates a set of route entries that requires some precise encoding.

OSPF

History

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), is an emerging protocol designed by the OSPF working Group of the IETF. It currently has only two versions the newest being version 2. It bases its routing techniques on link state records which are dynamically updated. Its name descended from the “Shortest path first” algorithm earlier developed by Dikstra, E. which is actually implemented by the OSPF nodes to figure preferred paths. It was majorly designed to support Variable-Length subnet Masking (VLSM) or Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) addressing algorithms.

Description of OSPF

OSPF attributes its incorporation to the first convergence periods to alleviate routing tables after a transition in the network topology, this is because its design aids in prevention of packet looping, supports specific metrics, and supports compound paths to a destination, and uses a different and unique representation for the external routes. This has aided in the ease of integration with the inter-autonomous system that uses exterior routing technique. This is the reason why it is more complex than RIP.

Being a link state protocol which is opposed to the previously discussed RIP that uses a distance vector protocol, OSPF nodes all sustain a complete topology of the network, and that is the reason why it computes a best route to broadcast packets on this internal map. This is the reason why it’s in a position to avoid the common packet looping since the internal map is always kept at a consistent state.

Any change implemented in the network topology is circulated to all work stations rapidly by a flooding protocol. As compared to the RIP’s one, OSPF implements three unique protocols.

·                     Hello Protocol

It is used to check on every link if they are functional and is also used to confirm the shortest path and a backup.

·                     Exchange protocol

This is used in the synchronization of the database that exists between two work stations, with one node assuming the role of a master and the other assuming the role of a slave.

·                     Flooding Protocol

The flooding protocol is majorly used to track changes in the link that have been implemented in the network topology and sends a message to all the nodes to accommodate the changes implemented.

In the functionality of OSPF routing protocol, work station that are installed within the network discovers their respective peers through the link state and builds up a record of the network topology. To reduce the process taken in this step, these workstations dynamically elects one of the nodes to act as a chosen router, and another added node to act as the backup for the designated workstation in case of any failure. After which the synchronization process begins where other nodes identify with the router elect, this speeds up the process. The chosen node that acts as the router also is responsible for sensing and sending of flooding messages to other workstations about changes implemented in the network topology.

OSPF also implements load sharing between links with similar or almost similar cost, although this to some extent can bring a limitation since it encourages looping which to a higher extent has been eliminated. Hence, to avoid tainted routing information OSPF packets contains a unique identification number which can be used to eliminate old message from the database. OSPF Also has added a security feature that detects malicious nodes.

Because of all these, OSPF is the suggested IPG for IPv6. The main changes that have been seen in the IPv6 OSPF are; the increased link state that now is identified by the 128-bit field instead of a 32-bit one, the router will be designated by one of their IPv6 existing addresses, the network domain will be identified by an address prefix on their IPv6, at the same time instead of a network mask, an assigned integer indicating the number of prefix bits will be implemented.

Intermediate System to Intermediate System Routing Protocol (IS-IS)

History

Intermediate System to Intermediate System Routing Protocol was developed by Digital Equipment Corporation as part of DECnet Phase V. it was ISO certified under standardization in 1992 as ISO 10589 for communication between networked devices. These devices are what are termed as intermediate system, as opposed to end to end systems of local or remote hosts associated with the ISO within the network layer of the global internet. Its purpose was to ensure that the routing algorithm of datagrams using the ISO-developed OSI protocol stack called CLNS.It was developed almost the same time when Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) was making OSPF.

Categorized under the internal routing protocol, it majorly operates with the IPv4 protocol, though there is are possibilities that a newer version will come out with capabilities of using IPv6 protocol. It is also a state link protocol as OSPF, it implements only two protocols that is the hello protocol, which check on every link if they are functional and is also used to confirm the shortest path and a backup and the flooding protocol which is used to track changes in the link that have been implemented in the network topology and sends a message to all the nodes to accommodate the changes implemented. Unlike the OSPF that has the entire hello, flooding and exchange protocol implemented.

IS-IS implements a sequencing technique of numbering messages passed to workstations unlike the OSPF that uses an elaborate one. When the hooping technique reaches the uppermost limit, the router falsifies a malfunction and generates a wash out on all previously stored information. Fortunately this does not undermine the functionality since IS-IS implements 32-bit which gives a large sequence number space before the utmost is reached. Initially IS-IS was designed for use in OSI networks, but a new edition has been designed that is compatible with OSI (CLNP) and OSPF, though it suffers from some problems. This new version has been viewed as similar to OSPF and offers a stiff competition in its implementation although it has some shortcomings which are the rigid constraint comparable to the hierarchical OSI model which has strict restriction on the organization and connectivity of sub-networks. Although OSI offers some advantages like automatic addressing, IS-IS does not give any compensation for this shortcoming and preserve the rigidity and does not give any privileges.

Although it is hoped that this rigidity will be compensated for in the IPv6 version this is expected to utilize the auto configuration options that comes with IPv6 hence bringing it closer to how the OSI implements its algorithms. Some of the technical problems that exist though are; the use of 6bits, this limits the quantity of information that can be transmitted, it also has a limited link state number to 8bit value, this limits the sequential number that a router can assign to only 256.  This limitation makes it hard for the IS-IS to develop.

Extended Interior Gateway Protocol (EIGRP)

History

IGRP was incepted at a complicated time for Cisco. The IETF had not yet formalized the qualifications for OSPF, and it was becoming apparent that RIP had too many precincts to be measured "state of the art" in any sense. Cisco had the alternative to wait and adopt IETF to finish their work or to develop its own protocol after which they would adopt. Cisco as a company decided to proceed and came up with this protocol. Being an in-house internal routing protocol designed by Cisco. It is a complete version of a protocol called IGRP. Similar to IS-IS, it will most likely be designed to support IPv6.

            Technical Description

IGRP is a distance vector protocol with solutions for some of RIP's major limitations. It operates on a lower frequency and supports such features as amalgamated metrics, some protection against loops, and multipath routing similar to the implemented feature in  OSPF.

IGRP routing implements a composite of four metrics that is:

·         Delay

·         Bandwidth

·         Reliability

·         Load

These standards are combined in a formula to compute the final path for a link. The fact that the metrics are specific allows routers to easily configure packet delivery based on internal preferences. IGRP uses a variety of methods to prevent message loops, some of which are:

·         Split horizon and

·         Triggered update

These techniques are also used by some RIP implementations. The augmentation decreases, but do not remove the looping limitation. IGRP also incorporates multipath routing very much like OSPF, this means that load can be balanced among paths that are of "almost similar cost.

Though this protocol implements a sophisticated mechanism known as Diffusing update Algorithm (DUAL). It enhances on the distance vector implanted by RIP and the initial versions of IGRP, this is because it eliminates loops that are in other routing protocol. The price of this, however, is the additional complexity that comes with its implementation.

A shortcoming of this EIGRP is that it is not similar in temperament with IGRP. This is because it is more complicated at the protocol level and on the execution level. This is in addition to an enhanced algorithm. Despite its incompatibility with IGRP, it has compatibility for CIDR subnet masks; this means that it can be easily enhanced to support IPv6 prefixes. It can also support or execute algorithms meant for external route protocols such as the OSPF. In other words, it is a dynamic protocol than RIP, and as well is seen as a potential competitor for its implementation to OSPF protocol. Although currently with the increase in the implementation of the open source solutions, EIGRP might not be implemented so much since people have negative attitude towards proprietary solutions.

Exterior Routing Protocols

Has the following protocol underneath it:

·         BGPv4

·         IDRP

BGPv4

History

            During the early stages of internet inception, how routers were connected was different from today as evident in the versions that are coming up. With the autonomy of internet architecture that was implemented, the routing services were centralized with the use of Gateway-to-Gateway protocol that acts as communication protocol between nodes and the Exterior gateway communication protocol (EGP) to communicate with routers outside the autonomous system.

            The need for BGP innovation was when more and more autonomous systems were developed the need for inter communication between them grew as well. EGB that was existent then experienced a lot of challenges that was evident with the growth of internet size. It was to provide a new exterior routing protocol that would enhance communication between many autonomous systems that was continuously growing.

The first version of BGP was formalized in 1989, with the publishing of the RFC 1105, which was called a Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). This preliminary version of BGP standard precisely defined most of the concepts behind the protocol, as well as key operational features such as messaging, message format and how the interconnected devices operate in a summarized concept.  This is what established BGP as the internet exterior routing protocol option for the future.

Due to the growing knowledge of protocols and how the span the size of the internet, the developers of BGP had the responsibility to rectify many limitations that accompanied the development of the initial protocol; this was majorly to improve on the efficiency and add many features that would enable BGP to keep pace with the changes in the TCP/IP suite.

            To be able to keep up with the market trends in communication protocols, BGP has evolved through several versions and standards.

BGP versions and description

BGP-1

            Had features of the initial definition of BGP that has been explained above.

BGP-2

            It comes with more improved features that the previous version, this also incorporated the use of several message formats that can be transmitted. It also adds the improved feature of selected path transmission that has information about the routes.

            It also implemented a platform that allows the implementation of Autonomous System (AS) topology.

BGP-3

            This version even simplified the concept of path routing, adding the identification feature to the transmitted packets that triggers BGP communication.

BGP-4

The primary improvement on this version was the incorporation of the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR).  This supplemented on the feature of identity by adding prefixes to be precise to a set of aggregated networks.

            BGPv4 being the latest version of this series, its operation allows for the use of routing table aggregation defined by the Classless Inter-Domain Routing which implements the path vector algorithm to pass messages. Routers that implement this routing protocol has an advantage of communicating between two sites at the same time it uses the arbitrary routing policies with the loop detection feature.

            BGP does not actually use the UDP packets; it uses the TCP layer instead that is implemented by most of the recent protocols. This simplifies the previous complex process of message transmission since it can utilize the TCP layer for purposes of message delivery. Although the use of TCP layer has a draw back since the link to the other node always appear to be dead or alive at any instance. Hence, there is no easier way to be able to determine the quality of a connection between two nodes which is normally done by the enumeration of the total number of packets lost or sent. Although, in an actual implementation environment, this has never brought nay complication since the modem network tend to be binary, they are either alive or they are totally dead.

            Although the BGP choice of utilization of TCP has some pros such as the lessening of the network load, since a dependable transport layer makes it possible to add updates instead of the previously implemented procedure of copying the whole database. After this inception BGP aids in the consumption of little bandwidth making it even more adoptable to most of the organizations.

            The process of communication within a BGP network first open a TCP connection to the default BGP port (179). Before the communication an opening handshake is made in which the sequential numbers are allocated, access information as well as the version of the protocol being used are exchanged. If the already set connection succeeds through authentication, the nodes will commence the process of exchanging packets to update each other’s database. These same changes are passed to other existing nodes in the network. After such a connection is established, the state of the link remains live and keeps on informing all the nodes in the networks of any changes that have been implemented in the topology.

            BGPv4 comes with an optimized feature that can handle 32-bit addresses, making it even susceptible to failure if IPv6 is implemented even though it supports CIDR extension. As a result another protocol under this exterior looping control has been adopted by the IETF. That is the IDRP protocol as the basis of IPv6.

Inter-Domain Routing Protocol (IDRP)

History

Commenced by the OSI group of protocols that was developed by the ISO, this is the reason behind the name ISO standard 10747. The development of the IDRP was as a result of the deliberation that was made that brought the realization that an improvement of BGP to be able to operate of IPv6 protocol was strain full. Hence the ideology of inter domain routing protocol. This was a widespread mindset amongst BGP developers: some of their reasons were; the BGP model does not have amongst its feature OSI networking dependencies, even though the initial mindset was for the OSI network use, its style of design supported multiprotocol routing which can also determine information from other groups of families addresses. It has also been tested and the path-vector design implemented in the BGP makes it sensationally safe with the IPv6.

Technical Description of IDRP

IDRP messages are transferred with the use of bare datagram services unlike BGP that implements through the TCP connection.

IDRP supports multiple instantaneous protocol families which is developed from the previously used single-address-family protocol

IDRP implements the variable length prefixes.

IDRP uses the concept of routing domain integration to collect this information.

From the above explanation of the features encompassed in the IDRP is that the adoption of the IPv6 majorly dictates how this protocol is implemented in terms of definition of the content of certain features rather than changing a whole protocol of BGP.

With the challenges that are still attributed with the BGP routing protocol, which to some extent has been inherited with the IDRP protocol. It is essential to look at some of the upcoming rooting technologies that are waiting for the full implementation of the IPv6 Internet protocol. This leads as to the following sub topic:

Upcoming routing protocols in preparation for the IPv6

Some innovative routing protocols are being developed that try to build on current information of routing protocols. The most famous of these are:

·         Nimrod

·         PNNI

Nimrod

            Though still in the design stages, it is envisioned towards IPv6 though at the same time not planned to the IPv6 architecture only. It also has plan for the support of dynamic internetworking with arbitrary network capacity, provides services that are unique to specific routing, and allows auto increment within the internetwork framework.

The design ideology behind this routing technique is that exploit the lifetime and elasticity of the architecture. With an ideology that great changes in numeric magnitude are also not exceptional in computer science for they will also one day be implemented like in other sciences. This can be justified with the addressing sizes exhibited by the IPv4 as well as the microprocessor addressing size that have increased and continue increasing tremendously.

The main goal of this routing protocol is to try and limit the amount of information throughout the internetwork as well as support the dynamic of arbitrary sizes of the protocols, provide precise service routings algorithms, in presence of multiple constraints that are imposed by the routing service providers as well as the users, incorporate deployment throughout the network.

            To be able to meet these goals in the advent of change, Nimrod tries to represent connectivity and service maps which have different conceptual level. This is planned for the user controlled route overview and collection based on these maps and on broad traffic service requirements.  And it is also supports user-directed packet that are forwarded on already established paths. It strives to implement a scalable architecture; this means that is planning to implement routing with and without a domain based on the multiplicity of the domain. In effect it will incorporate the feature of IGP and EGP. It technology is not tied to IP, and it can easily be implemented in an OSI environment.

It views the internetwork of clusters as units in different levels of abstraction. These entities can be the network components such as the routers, hosts, nodes, and the technique used to cluster them is authorized by Nimrod.

PINN though being and independent networks lies on the on same goals as nimrod, its majaorly intended to be implemented in ATM.

Today’s state of the art routers:

Some of the currently implemented routers include the Cisco 12000 series and many other series that have been implemented by Cisco. Because of the extent of penetration in the market, Cisco has an added advantage in the implementation of different proprietary networking routers and protocols to continue enhancing on services at the same time are the leading innovators in the field of networking.

Cisco despite the multiple series of routers they have brought to the market with a lot of investments, most of the added feature in each and every series is are because of the continuous protocols that they continue putting in place to be able to monopolies the market.

Some of the routing protocols that have been implemented with the use of IPv4 and IPv6 by the Cisco Organization include:

MP-BGP (Multiprotocol BGP)

is a routing technology that adds capabilities to enable the multicasting routing procedures throughout the internet as well as at the same time be in a position to be compatible with multicasted packets that are transmitted within and between BGP autonomous systems. This is to say that, MP-BGP is a a more advanced BGP that ports IP multicast routes. BGP carries with it two sets of routes as discussed earlier, that one deposit of unicast routing and one deposit for multicast routing.

The routes that are associated with multicast routing are implemented by the protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) to be in a position to build data distribution trees.

eBGP/iBGP

As I had indicated previously, BGP implements an interautonomous system of routing protocol. This is to say that when BGP is implemented between autonomous systems (AS), then the protocol is known as external BGP (eBGP). If a service provider is implementing BGP to ensure the exchange of routes within the AS, then the protocol is known n interior BGP (iBGP). This are some of the techniques that Cisco 10000 series, 19000 series, 12000 series as well as XR 1200 implement to be able to enhance efficiently in the transfer of packet both internally and externally between autonomous systems.

Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP)

This is a Cisco Data Link Layer protocol, which is actually used to share information between two Cisco devices. For example a Cisco Operating System version as well as the IP addresses.  CDP can also be implemented in the On-demand routing, which is a method of the incorporation of routing information of the CDP announcements such that the existing routing protocols does not need to be executed in a simple network.

Cisco devices usually send CDP announcements to the multicast destination at the interface of each connected network. These sent multicast can either be received by Cisco switches and other connected network devices that are compatible with CDP into the connected network interface. This multicast target is also implemented in other existing Cisco protocols such as the VTP. By default CDP announcements are sent every 60 seconds on te interface that supports Subnetwork Access Protocols (SNAP) headers, including Ethernet which is similar to the autonomous architecture, frame relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Each Cisco device that supports CDP always stores the information it has received from a compatible device in a table that can always be viewed from a show the cdp command.

This table similar to the database in the OSPF protocol is being refreshed whenever another message is received and the time that has to be reinitialized to the current. This time always specifies the lifetime of an entry in the table, it at all there is no communication from a Cisco device or a compatible device in the excess of the holdtime, the information sent by the device is discarded.

            This information contained in the CDP always varies depending on the type of device and the version of the OS that it operates. This information usually contains the operating system version, hostname and the address (Internet Protocol address) from all the protocols configured on the port where CDP packet is sent, the identification port which has a prefix the identifies the CDP from which the announcement was sent, the type of the device and what model and many others.

Connection-mode Network Protocol (CLNP)

            In an OSI protocol implementation, CLNS is the service provider for the Connectionless mode Network Protocol. CLNP is commonly used in telecommunication networks found around the world. This is because IS-IS which is an OSI routing protocol, is authorized by the ITU-T as the protocol uniquely identified for management of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) ELEMENTS.

Transport Protocol Class 4 (TP4) in conjunction with CLNS

This is normally used by the ISO Transport protocol class 4, this is one of the five transport layer protocols in the OSI package. It offer services such as the error recovery, performs the process of segmentation and reassembly, as well as does the multiplexing and demultiplexing of packets over a single existing virtual circuit. Its series and PDUs and retransmits them if the hop has actually submitted an excess. TP4 provides a dependable transport service and functionalities with the implementation of either the connection oriented or the connectionless network services. Hence, TP4 is the most commonly implemented of all the OSI packages of protocols which is similar to the previously discussed TCP.

Web Cache Communication Protocol

Web Cache Communication Protocol is a Cisco-developed content routing protocol that provides an alternative to redirect the traffic flow in real time. It has an enhanced load balancing scaling, as well as fault tolerance feature, and service assurance techniques. The advancement in this technique has made it have two versions that have different limitations and advantages. WCCP gives room for the utilization of Cisco Cache Engines to be able to actually localize the web traffic patterns that exist in the network. This enables the contents that have been requested by the user to be satisfied locally than going to the remote server. This assists in efficiency at the same time the transmission costs and load time.

WCCP has enhanced the experienced used in the implementation of the Internet Protocol in the following way, the version one has a single router under a cluster of systems, it supports the hypertext transfer protocol, as well as the TCP port 80 where the traffic flows to, routers as well as the cache engines transfer information between each other via a control channel base on a UDP port of 2480.

The version 2 of the WCCP expanded the router capacity such that it allows for use up to 32 capacity i.e. servers, supports up to an equivalent of 32 engines i.e. clients, accommodate both the UDP and the TCP protocols, and finally it also supports the 255 addressing groups of services.

Multiprotocol Label Switching is a technique that enhances high performance of telecommunication networks that links data from one workstation to the next based on the short path labels than long network addresses, it avoid the verification from the routing table. These indicated labels identify the actual links between nodes rather than end points. MPLS can be able to enclose various network protocols. MPLS supports a variety of authorization technologies including the frame relay implemented with the Cisco series routers and DSL.

Home Network Administration Protocol (HNAP)

This is a network protocol that is also designed by Cisco which gives room for the classification, configuration, and the running of network services. HNAP is based on SOAP.

Gateway Load Balancing Protocol

Is also a Cisco proprietary protocol that tries to enhance the limitations of the currently existing redundant router protocols by adding a functionality of load balancing.

In addition to being in a position to classify priorities on different gateway routers, GLBP generally allows weighting parameters to be set. Based on this that is compared with other routers in the same virtual router set, ARP request will be responded to with a MAC address pointing to a different router. Thus, load balances are not necessarily based on the traffic load, but rather on the number of hosts that will be utilizing the gateway router. In other words the round robin fashion is implemented in this algorithm.

GLBP selects an active virtual gateway for each router groups set. Other groups act as backup in case of the AVG failure. In case there are more than two equal members, the second best AVG is placed in the next line as the other AVG are listing on the path.

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